The Foundations of Psychology

Written by: Kelly L. Hunter

Psychology may have been made popular by sophisticated minds like that of Sigmund Freud, however; this science has been around for as long as animals and humans have walked this Earth. Psychology is said to be the scientific investigation of mental processes and behavior (Kowalski & Weston, 2005). This study of the mind and its behaviors has been an ever evolving process and one that is still developing today. In the early years of psychology, there were only two major schools of thought: Structuralism (structure of consciousness) and Functionalism (the function of adapting to one’s environment). Psychology in today’s modern world has evolved into many schools of thought including but not limited to: Behavioral, Psychoanalytic, Cognitive, Sociocultural, and Physiological to name a few. Kowalski and Weston (2005) state that, “Psychological processes reflect the influence of biological processes of the cells within the nervous system and the context of cultural beliefs and values.” Some experts believe that biology and psychology are so closely linked they came up with a study known as Biopsychology. This study seeks to understand how the mind operates by better understanding the biological activity that is present in the brain.
Behavioral Psychology is the study of how behavior is shaped by the environment in which an individual lives or is exposed. The American Psychological Association (APA) (2009) states that, “The specialty of Behavioral Psychology emphasizes an experimental-clinical approach to the application of behavioral and cognitive sciences to understanding human behavior and developing interventions to enhance the human condition” (¶ 1). B.F. Skinner was a renowned psychologist who studied the behavior of animals to better understand how environment and conditioning affects human behavior. Skinner’s theories became known as Operant Conditioning: conditioned behavior by way of positive or negative reinforcement. “The knowledge base of Behavioral Psychology is derived from a wide range of areas, including experimental, cognitive, developmental, physiological, and social psychology” (APA, 2009).
Psychoanalysis was founded by Freud who believed that behavior is determined by an individuals’ unconscious mind and that the repository of repressed impulses and desires determine the way a person thinks, feels, and acts (Kazlev, 2004). This clinical approach to psychology focuses on the implementation of long-term, intensive, psychotherapeutic activity, which can consist of dream interpretation, analysis of the therapist-patient relationship, and other distinctive focal points to assist in achieving effective character transformation. This kind of treatment began more than 100 year ago to aid in the rehabilitation of individuals with dissociative disorders (APA, 2009). Psychoanalytic studies have since expanded to include a vast amount of psychopathology displayed individually amongst children, adults, families, couples and even groups. This kind of treatment is used on individuals with borderline personality disorders that have been insusceptible to other forms of treatment in the past. “Use of empathy, play therapy, free association, dream analysis, attention to the patient/psychologist relationship and its disturbances, and investigation of significant present and past relationships, as well as classical psychoanalysis and its variants, are some of the intervention techniques employed” (APA, 2009).
Cognitive psychology became popular during the rise of introspective psychology; however, when behaviorism became a main focal point for psychologist, cognitive studies faded into the distance. Cognitive psychology dates back to the early 19th century and was a significant part of philosophical psychology (Cognitive, 1999). By definition, cognitive psychology refers to the way individuals perceive, process, and retrieve information that is provided by their environment. Psychologists that study cognition, describe the brain as being much like a computer that stores information in its database for future examination and use; consider thinking as being the processing of information. An individual’s environment provides input that is transformed, stored, and later retrieved by using the brain’s various mental “programs” which in turn outputs specific responses. Cognitive approach has deep philosophical roots that date back to ancient Grecian philosophy. “Cognitive psychologists, in contrast, are interested in many of the questions raised by Descartes and other rationalist philosophers, who emphasized the role of reason in creating knowledge” (Cognitive, 1999).
Culture is believed to play a significant role in an individual’s behaviors and is said to be where individuals acquire their moral, ethical, and spiritual beliefs. Durkheim believed that society influenced human behavior in a magnificent way and was the first person to introduce psychology into sociology. “Psychologically sophisticated anthropologists like Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict, who were interested in the relationship between culture and personality argued that individual psychology is fundamentally shaped by cultural values, ideals, and ways of thinking” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005). Some experts believe that the economic strains felt within certain cultures have had tremendous effects on “child-rearing practices” which in turn has had either a positive or negative affect on a child’s developing personality. It seems that sociocultural psychology may help us to better understand how environment and personality connect and the effects both have on human behaviors. If a child grows up in a gang infested neighborhood, will the chances of that child joining a gain increase? Quite possibly, the answer to this question would be “yes.”
In conclusion, the study of Physiological Psychology (aka: Biopsychology): the science that studies the biological basis of human behavior has contributed significantly to modern psychology. “This means that the physiological psychologist studies the biological factors (as opposed to economic, social, or cultural factors) that cause or constitute behavior” (Refinetti, 1992). This study of behavioral neuroscience uses auditory and visual experiences that are stimulated by sending electrical currents to specific portions of the brain. Scientists compare the behaviors of different species in order to determine how evolution has shaped the brain and effected behavior. In order to understand how psychology works, an individual must first understand the biological factors that make up this science. “The nervous system is the interacting network of nerve cells that underlies all psychological activity” (Kowalski & Westen, 2005). Understanding how our environment plays a role in shaping our individual personalities is also important. Lastly, appreciating that society is made up of unique individuals with diverse cultural backgrounds will ultimately help us to better understand human behaviors.













Reference(s)

American Psychological Association. (2009). Retrieved June 20, 2009.
http://www.apa.org

“Archival Description of Behavioral Psychology”. (2003). American Psychological Association. Retrieved June 19, 2009.
http://www.apa.org

“Cognitive psychology sees a return to power”. (1999). American Psychological Association. Vol. 30. Num. 11. Retrieved June 21, 2009.
http://www.apa.org

Kazlev, M.A. (2004). “Psychoanalytical Psychology”. Kheper. Retrieved June 19, 2009.
http://www.kheper.net

Kowalski, R. & Westen, D. (2005). “Psychology”. (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Retrieved June 21, 2009.
https://ecampus.phoenix.edu/content/eBookLibrary2/content/TOC.aspx?assetdataid=1b025391-d021-4fd0-a41b-dbb80ae2a6f7&assetmetaid=fcf36884-0204-4af5-8824-14569be1db5b